{"id":91300,"date":"2026-03-21T03:02:35","date_gmt":"2026-03-21T03:02:35","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/gaeatech.com\/knowledge-center\/?p=91300"},"modified":"2026-03-26T04:20:23","modified_gmt":"2026-03-26T04:20:23","slug":"interpreting-plume-behavior","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/gaeatech.com\/knowledge-center\/interpreting-plume-behavior\/","title":{"rendered":"Interpreting Plume Behavior: A Complete Guide for Groundwater Contaminant Analysis"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-introduction\">Introduction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Understanding how a contaminant plume behaves in groundwater is one of the most important skills in hydrogeology and environmental engineering. Whether you are working with analytical tools like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gaeatech.com\/pollute.php\">POLLUTEv8<\/a> or complex numerical models, the ability to interpret plume behavior accurately determines how well you can assess risks, design remediation systems, and communicate findings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A contaminant plume is not just a visual output\u2014it is a dynamic representation of subsurface processes including advection, dispersion, sorption, and degradation. Interpreting it correctly requires both technical knowledge and practical insight.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This tutorial provides a comprehensive, step-by-step guide to interpreting plume behavior, helping you move beyond simply viewing model results to truly understanding what they mean.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-1-what-is-a-contaminant-plume\">1. What Is a Contaminant Plume?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>A contaminant plume is the spatial distribution of a pollutant within groundwater as it migrates away from a source zone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-key-characteristics\">Key Characteristics<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Source area<\/strong> \u2013 where contamination originates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Plume core<\/strong> \u2013 highest concentration zone<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Leading edge<\/strong> \u2013 advancing front of contamination<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Trailing edge<\/strong> \u2013 area of declining concentration<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Plumes evolve over time, influenced by hydrogeological and chemical processes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-2-core-processes-that-control-plume-behavior\">2. Core Processes That Control Plume Behavior<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>To interpret plume behavior, you must understand the processes driving it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-advection\">Advection<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Movement of contaminants with groundwater flow<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Controls plume direction and speed<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-dispersion\">Dispersion<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Spreading caused by velocity variations<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Expands plume width and length<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-diffusion\">Diffusion<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Molecular mixing in low-flow zones<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Important in clays and stagnant areas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sorption\">Sorption<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Contaminants attach to soil particles<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Slows plume migration (retardation)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-decay-degradation\">Decay (Degradation)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Chemical or biological breakdown<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reduces concentration over time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-3-visualizing-plume-behavior\">3. Visualizing Plume Behavior<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Plume behavior is typically visualized using:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-plan-view-maps\">Plan View Maps<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Show plume extent in horizontal space<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Useful for identifying affected areas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-cross-sections\">Cross-Sections<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Show vertical distribution<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Highlight stratigraphic controls<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-time-series-plots\">Time-Series Plots<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Show concentration changes over time<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Useful for monitoring wells<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-4-interpreting-plume-shape\">4. Interpreting Plume Shape<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The shape of a plume reveals key information about subsurface conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-narrow-elongated-plume\">Narrow, Elongated Plume<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Indicates strong advection<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Low dispersion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-wide-diffuse-plume\">Wide, Diffuse Plume<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>High dispersion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Possible heterogeneity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-irregular-shape\">Irregular Shape<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Variable geology<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Preferential pathways<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-5-understanding-plume-migration\">5. Understanding Plume Migration<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-direction\">Direction<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Plume direction follows groundwater flow. Confirm that:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>It aligns with hydraulic gradient<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It matches field observations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-velocity\">Velocity<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Evaluate how fast the plume is moving:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Compare travel time to monitoring data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Check consistency with hydraulic conductivity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-6-interpreting-concentration-levels\">6. Interpreting Concentration Levels<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-high-concentrations\">High Concentrations<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Close to source<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Limited attenuation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-decreasing-concentrations\">Decreasing Concentrations<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Due to dispersion, sorption, or decay<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-threshold-exceedance\">Threshold Exceedance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Identify areas exceeding regulatory limits<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-7-breakthrough-curve-interpretation\">7. Breakthrough Curve Interpretation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Breakthrough curves show concentration over time at a fixed location.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-key-features\">Key Features<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Arrival time<\/strong> \u2013 when contamination first appears<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Peak concentration<\/strong> \u2013 maximum level<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Tailing<\/strong> \u2013 persistence of low concentrations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-what-they-tell-you\">What They Tell You<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Transport speed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Attenuation processes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Source behavior<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-8-identifying-attenuation-processes\">8. Identifying Attenuation Processes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-natural-attenuation-indicators\">Natural Attenuation Indicators<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Declining concentrations over distance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reduced plume length over time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sorption-effects\">Sorption Effects<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Delayed arrival times<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lower peak concentrations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-decay-effects\">Decay Effects<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Rapid concentration reduction<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shorter plume<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-9-evaluating-plume-stability\">9. Evaluating Plume Stability<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>A key question in site assessment:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-is-the-plume\">Is the plume:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Expanding?<\/strong> \u2192 increasing risk<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Stable?<\/strong> \u2192 equilibrium<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Shrinking?<\/strong> \u2192 natural attenuation working<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-how-to-determine\">How to Determine<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Compare plume extent over time<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Analyze monitoring data trends<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-10-role-of-hydrogeology\">10. Role of Hydrogeology<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Subsurface conditions strongly influence plume behavior.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-homogeneous-aquifer\">Homogeneous Aquifer<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Predictable plume shape<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Smooth gradients<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-heterogeneous-aquifer\">Heterogeneous Aquifer<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Irregular plume<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Preferential pathways<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-layering-effects\">Layering Effects<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Vertical spreading limited or enhanced<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Contaminants may be trapped or redirected<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-11-influence-of-source-characteristics\">11. Influence of Source Characteristics<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-continuous-source\">Continuous Source<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Sustained plume<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Stable or growing<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-pulse-source\">Pulse Source<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Plume dissipates over time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-variable-source\">Variable Source<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Fluctuating concentrations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Understanding source history is critical for interpretation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-12-common-interpretation-mistakes\">12. Common Interpretation Mistakes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Avoid these pitfalls:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Assuming plume is symmetrical<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ignoring vertical variability<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Overlooking data gaps<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Misinterpreting dispersion as dilution<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Assuming steady-state when conditions are changing<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-13-using-plume-behavior-for-risk-assessment\">13. Using Plume Behavior for Risk Assessment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Plume interpretation directly informs risk evaluation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-key-questions\">Key Questions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Will contamination reach receptors?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>When will it arrive?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>At what concentration?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-applications\">Applications<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Drinking water protection<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Regulatory compliance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Land-use planning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-14-interpreting-model-vs-field-data\">14. Interpreting Model vs. Field Data<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-model-results\">Model Results<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Idealized<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Based on assumptions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-field-data\">Field Data<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Real-world variability<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Measurement uncertainty<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-best-practice\">Best Practice<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Use both together:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Validate models with field data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use models to fill data gaps<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-15-sensitivity-and-uncertainty\">15. Sensitivity and Uncertainty<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Plume behavior is influenced by uncertain parameters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-key-variables\">Key Variables<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Hydraulic conductivity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Dispersivity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sorption coefficients<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Decay rates<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-approach\">Approach<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Test parameter ranges<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evaluate impact on plume<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-16-practical-workflow-for-interpretation\">16. Practical Workflow for Interpretation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Review conceptual model<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Examine plume maps<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Analyze breakthrough curves<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Compare with monitoring data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Identify controlling processes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Assess risk<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Document findings<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-17-case-study-example-conceptual\">17. Case Study Example (Conceptual)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-scenario\">Scenario<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Contaminant: hydrocarbons<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Distance: 150 m<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Monitoring data available<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-observations\">Observations<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Plume length decreasing<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Peak concentrations declining<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-interpretation\">Interpretation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Natural attenuation occurring<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Decay likely significant<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Risk decreasing over time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-18-communicating-plume-behavior\">18. Communicating Plume Behavior<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Clear communication is essential.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-use\">Use:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Simple visuals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Clear explanations<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Key metrics (distance, concentration, time)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-avoid\">Avoid:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Overly technical language for non-experts<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-19-best-practices\">19. Best Practices<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Always link interpretation to data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Consider multiple processes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Validate assumptions<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use multiple lines of evidence<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Document uncertainties<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-conclusion\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Interpreting plume behavior is both a science and an art. It requires understanding physical processes, analyzing data, and applying professional judgment. By carefully examining plume shape, migration, concentration trends, and controlling factors, you can extract meaningful insights that support environmental decision-making.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Whether using POLLUTEv8 or more advanced models, the principles remain the same: understand the system, analyze the data, and interpret results within the context of real-world conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mastering plume interpretation will elevate your ability to assess contamination, design solutions, and communicate findings effectively.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Introduction Understanding how a contaminant plume behaves in groundwater is one of the most important skills in hydrogeology and environmental engineering. Whether you are working with analytical tools like POLLUTEv8 or complex numerical models, the ability to interpret plume behavior accurately determines how well you can assess risks, design remediation systems, and communicate findings. A [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":91301,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1204,726],"tags":[1237,501,24,685,1226,469,821,1238,1235,1234,1236,1233,284],"class_list":["post-91300","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-contaminant-transport-modeling-tutorials","category-training-and-tutorials","tag-attenuation","tag-contaminant-transport","tag-environmental-engineering","tag-environmental-modeling","tag-groundwater-contamination","tag-groundwater-modeling","tag-hydrogeology","tag-hydrogeology-tutorial","tag-plume-analysis","tag-plume-behavior","tag-plume-migration","tag-risk-assessment","tag-site-assessment"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v27.4 (Yoast SEO v27.4) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Interpreting Plume Behavior: Groundwater Contamination Basics - Knowledge Center<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Learn how to interpret contaminant plume behavior in groundwater. 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